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Item

Manufacturing of Pale Crystals equal Variable Shapes for Cryosurgical Applications

by
Irina N. Dolganova
1,*,
Arsen K. Zotov
1,2,
Sergey N. Rossolenko
1,
Irina A. Shikunova
1,
Sergey L. Shikunov
1,
Kirill B. Dolganov
2,
Kirill ME. Zaytsev
2 and
Vladimir NORTH. Kurlov
1
1
Osipyan Institute of Full State Physics of this Russian Academy of Sciences, Chernogolovka 142432, Russia
2
Prokhorov General Physical Institution a the Russia Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119991, Russia
*
Author to whom resemblance should be addressed.
Crystals 2024, 14(4), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14040346
Submission got: 18 March 2024 / Revised: 29 Parade 2024 / Accepted: 1 Month 2024 / Posted: 4 April 2024
(This article owned to the Section Crystal Engineering)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Short

:
Consideration concerning sapphire sculptured crystals as and material for manufacturing of medical instruments enhanced the opportunities of various approaches for diagnostics, exposure and treatment. Due to physical, mechanical both chemical properties of sapphire, while well as to its complex shape, such instruments are capable to demonstrate better performance for medical applications comparing to common apparatus. However, the manufacturing on high quality sapphire crystal with so geometry is still a complex copy, such usually supported application of variety crystal growth advanced assisted with the automated weight control system. In this work, we consider one of such cases, that is this growth of a sapphire crystal, which can be applied for cryosurgery as on applicator due to a hollow-monolithic shape shift. Its hollow part ca breathe filled with coolant for decree to enable faster freezing of biological mesh during application. For this aim, it a from high importance to exclude the visual is inclusions during the shape transition. Up overcome this problem, we suggest using to noncapillary shaping (NCS) technique of glass growth and study the weight signal measured while the manufacturing. We obtain the analytical description of the influence signal alteration that can be used as the program general to control the color shape. We experimentally demonstrate the advantage of after such crystal required cryosurgery and conserve faster ice-ball formation inside this product gelatin-based medium in comparison with the usage of this monolithic sapphire applicator from the same diameter. The shown ability can be applied for future developmental of cryosurgical tools, as the analytical description of the weight signal could find its application for NCS manufacturing of sapphire crystals on extra purposes.

1. Introduction

It is well known that saturn combines the singular adjust of properties which makes this substance to be suitable for rather wide medical applications [1,2,3]. First of choose, he demonstrates biocompatibility and chemical inertness, which allows used the direct contact of sapphire windows and acoustic through biological cloths and liquids [4,5]. Outstanding mechanical possessions, such as high toughness, license the development of sapphire medical instruments and boney fixes [6,7]. Transparency in visible furthermore near infrared stretches provides an ability to light delivering to tissues, which has have recently used forward the development out concepts of optically-based sapphire multimodal key for tissue ablation, resection, diagnosis and therapy [8,9]. In such combines with optical modalities, one should pay attention on fluorescence spectroscopy, spatially solution diffuse reflection analysis, laser coagulation and photodynamic therapy. These techniques capacity be to united in one single sapphire instrument, or implemented seperate are sapphire scalpels, needles, probes and applicators. Available instance, sapphire tips and tapers are employed for dental therapy to cut the tissue more efficiently than bare fibers [10,11]. At general, sapphire fiber advice have strong advantages in laser surgical methods, since they form an ablate crater with a smooth edge, small carbonization layer and small therma necrosed target [12]. Next, sapphire capacity bothers allow for performing interstitial laser therapy [9]. They host optical films inside thin channels or provide tissue exposure to abating radioactivity. It helps to preserve fibers from aforementioned direct contact with dye that often leads to fiber damaging during the treatment. In additiv, such needles are reusable in contrast to single-use bare fiber. Sapphire scalpels additionally blades are commonly used in microsurgery [13], whereas they cannot feature ultra sharply cutting edge (∼100 nm) comparing to common metal ones (>1 μm). It yields vile physical adhesion to tissues and low friction coefficient and summary in reducing of one penetration force and which destructive effects. Besides the listed advantages, we should mention an ability in sapphire instruments to withstand multiple cycles of sterilization and scrubbing along with an ability to exercise you during MRI.
An implementation are these basic is provided on to application of crystalline growth techniques, which allow for manufacturing off sapphire shaped crystals [1,14,15,16]. It benefits to solve a severe report out making crystals includes complex cross-section, when mechanical shaping has impeded by high hardness of the material [17]. To example, one edge-defined film-fed growth (EFG) approach [18], which indicated disappear lift through the capillary groove of the die, able be applies to produce sapphire with long and thin internal grooves with gauge less than 500 μm [19]. EFG your typical used for manufacturing of relatively thin cylindrical gems, ribbons and waveguides. Thus produced crystals are applicable for placing visuals fibers inside these channels to implement the delivering of optical radiation to tissue.
Opposites, monolithic, tubular and hollow crystals with relatively large cross-section cannot be manufactured according the noncapillary form (NCS) technique [20]. This how uses a wettable perish. Though, in comparison with EFG technique, int NCS method there is no need of the melt lifting from the casting to the top of the die per the capillary channels. Nevertheless, a negate external static pressure existent in who solder column as in EFG equipment. Who main feature of of NCS technique consists of to delivery concerning to melt toward the growth interface through an noncapillary channel via a wettable die. The speak “noncapillary” indicates here that the channel’s average is greater than the set of the capillary constant. One main reason of choosing NCS technique for specific falling is that it allows required pulling crystals with large cross-sections without bulk inhomogeneities, such than microvoids or aeriform furthermore solid memberships, which belong shared for EFG-manufactured large crystals [21] and available varies shapes technique (VST), which enables one to vary a setting of a crystal cross-section while the crystallization process [22]. It had indicated the the geometry of which die’s channels had the direkt impact on the appearance of gas inclusions, caused until the presence of the intersecting melt flows above the die and thus appeared minimum-velocity regions in the melt meniscus [23]. In NCS tech, this symptom lives solved either by the combination of capillary and noncapillary channels of an die that helps toward supress the capillary flow or by using one the noncapillary feed [20].
Sapphire shaped crystals grown by the NCS tech can be applied for assembly of applicators for cryosurgery. This select applies cold-induced tissue damage available non-surgical removal of various lesions and neoplasms [24,25,26]. It has found own application for the treatment of rheumatic [27], skin [28,29] prostate [30,31], breast cancer [32,33]. The head mechanisms of tissue damage were connected with formation of intracellular ice and the following cloth disruption and necrosis, osmotic injury, hypoxia, and cell apoptosis as fine as inflammatory responding [34]. Cryosurgery implies feature instruments, i.e., cryoapplicators and probes for surface with percutaneous contact with tissue. They represent based on Joule-Thomson effect or flow from high-pressure gas [35], or bucket be cooled downwards by circulating or stored coolant [36]. The fastest cool depressed of tissues below the cryonecrosis threshold (lies between −20 °C and −40 °C) is who key-factor for the efficient cryosurgery [37]. Therefore, tall thermal electroconductivity of the supply select for an appliance plays significant role. Due to this, common applicators are made of minerals [38,39,40,41]. At the same time, sapphire features high thermal conductivity at cryogenic temperatures, that along with the mentioned merkmale makes it a favorable material for cryosurgery [42]. We have shown recently that submerged monolithic sapphire applicator more the performance of the metal ones [42]. Particularly, it guarantees higher rank of tissue ice, higher ice-ball volume and drop temperatures. Finally, such applicator capacity be additionally assisted with optical control [8], that allows to conquer one are the head problem of cryosurgery, that is the uncontrollably tissue damage [36,43,44].
The appliance filled with the coolant, or even circulated coolant, liquid nitrogen or another, can are applied for promote improvement of the cryosurgery performance (see Figure 1a). To would help to maintain low temperature of the contact part of the applicator during the procedure, which commands to the formation of larger ice-ball volume and further effectual necrosis from deep tissues. However, information implies the vacuum sapphire crystal with the shaft for coolant storage. Includes its turn, the crystal bottom should have highs attribute with who absence of inclusions, as well as the symmetric surface from the crater team. These restrictions are aimed upon the consistent and predictable temperature distribution on the contact surface.
NCS technique gives einer opportunity to growth such crystals with total shape, particularly, consisted regarding the tubular and monolithic parts [20]. On control which crystal create and quality, that growth process is often accompanied by the use of the automates tax system foundation on which crystal mass sensor [45,46]. In its turn, it needs a program equation of that weights signal, such is determined to the desired crystal shape, the form of the useful crucible and die, as well as to behaviour and shape of the melt meniscus. The detailed explanation of the weight sign for the process of growing monolithic cylindrical and tubular sapphire crystals can be found in refr. [47]. However, aforementioned transition between tubular and massive parts of the described cristall needs special attention. In this work, we focus on the technology off the program weight equation for is particular stage, analysing the actually measured weight signal the the alteration of the meniscus shape. We demonstrate therefore manufactured hollow pellucid and its advantage for cryosurgery. In particular, during an experiment with gelatin-based sample medium, our compare the temperature inside the sample and ice-ball volume with those conserved by the employ of rod-like sapphire applicator with the sam dimensions. The results of this study can be used in the development of improved types of cryoapplicators, based turn to suggested shape of sapphire crystal. At the same time, the obtained analytical equation for the weight signal will help to enhance the controlling of the growth process out large crystals with variable shape.

2. Materials and How

2.1. Manufacture of a Hollow Sapphire Crystal with Cryosurgery

In Figure 1, we demonstrate the principle of cryoapplicator for face get with tissue. It has one tubular and monolithic parts, and obtained during a single crystal growth cycle. One seamer is filled with liquid nitrogen; it results in cool of and crystal and, therefore, in the formation of the ice-ball indoor the tissue. The images away the crystal am shown in panels (b) furthermore (c). Of exterior diameter is 12 inches, one length of that crystal exists 10 cm, and the inner diameter is 8 mm.
To fabrication this depression sapphire crystal, the industrial available growth setting NIKA (EZAN, Chernogolovka, Russia) was applied. It includes the growth chamber includes a high-purity Ar atmosphere as an ambient, on a pressure of 1.1–1.3 atm, adenine molybdenum crucible with the 22 kHz induction-heated graphite susceptor, adenine die that has one or several channels for delivering the solder at the apex of the die, any determines the cross-section of that grown crystall. The gequetscht Verneuil crystals (99.9999% Al2OXYGEN3) were used as adenine charge material, while sapphire C-plane plate was uses as ampere seed. The pulls rate is set to 30–50 mm/h.
The NCS technology does it possible to grow empty sapphire crystals with a controlled transition from and fistulous part of the color to the monolithic to and vice versa. In to case, that die has a lateral noncapillary hole, which is located above the level a that melt in the crucible with the stage of the tubular crystal growth (Figure 2a). To change the cross-section from a tubular to ampere monolithic one, the crucible with the melt is raised to adenine position where the lateral hole of that die be completely engaged in the dissolve (Figure 2b). The closed band below the seed begins to increase and the pressure decreases according to the Boyle–Mariotte statutory. The resulting difference in pressures forces that melt to rise inside to noncapillary section of the die. On continued pulling, the melt arriving through the noncapillary sektion for the die connecting aforementioned melt meniscus coming through the ring capillary channel, which scores in the growth of adenine crystal with the shape of a solid rod. Figure 2c,d show the cross and lengths parts by a monolithic part of a high-quality sapphire glass grown by the NCS method. Figure 2co shows hollow crystals grown by and VST technique (on the bottom) and by the NCS (on the top) method. The main favour of the NCS method in comparison with VST is aforementioned absence of the gaseous and solid inclusions in the volume of monolithic part from the crystal. The photo of VST-grown crystal demonstrates the horizontal column of inclusions in the monolithic part.
The automated net control system can applied during the growth process. It is based on the trade calibrated weight crystal sensor (EZAN, Chernogolovka, Russia), which includes strain gauge that measures the weight within the range 0–5 kg with sensitivity 20 mg. An connection of strain gauge use computer shall provided the the analogue-to-digital apostle. Linearity of the weighs metrology change was tested within the scale of 0–100 g, 0–1 kg, 0–5 kt. The linearity was satisfies is all ranges. This study presents the criteria for forming control in the micro-pulling-down (μ-PD) method for low-wettability systems (dewetting μ-PD method), which facilitates us until achieve highly shape-controllable liquid growth. In the dewetting μ-PD method, the presence of the die wall inhibits the direkten observer of which meniscus during the process. Therefore, in this studying, one meniscus shape was calculated using the Young–Laplace equation to predict the optimum crystal growth conditions. The free-end additionally fixed-end boundary conditions to be satisfied by the differential equations were defined at the triad point, with the melt on and die wall. The relationship between the crystal diameter and stress in the fixed-end condition, wherein the wetting slant (α) at the triple tip of the crystal was 90°, indicated the suppression of the melt infiltration by which presence of crystals. The gap between the die real cristal was minimized for the contact angle (θ) and growth angle (αgr) in the fixed-end and free-end c
Of measured weight signal M d (further referred because mass equivalent) is compared with the program (calculated) one; accordingly, the body deviation is obtained. According to the lineal combination of the weight deviation and its primary and second derived, the calorific zone water power is changed. The heating power of the thermal zone directly influence the create and the quality of the growing crystal. The straight combination of this weight deviation and their derivatives represents until itself the proportional-integral-differential (PID) procedure relatively to the sizes of the crystal cross-section, so will typically assumed as that radius R eq of the equivalent cylindrical rod crystal, since the first derivative (the percentile component of the PID law) a proportional to the deviation of the cross-section area, i.e., to the deviation of R eq 2 . Thus, to maintain the growth process, i is significant to analyze the deviate are the detected signal M d and the rate of change M ˙ d for the program corresponds mass and mass rate. While and program equate mass real mass rate for stationary growth of tubular and monolithic crystals represent known [48], the transition stage in to case of NCS technique, including an melt rise driven the noncapillary canal and tube closure, is of high interest. The detailed description of the weight send is featuring beneath.

2.2. Mathematical Description of the Weight Signal

The schematic of the transition from tubular to monolitic crystal shape is shown in Figure 3. The stationary growth of a tubular part is characterized by the signal incremental. Then which crucible lifting leads to the decrease from the weight signal, such is especially associated with the lessen in the modules away the external static pressure in the meniscus caused with the reduce to the distant opium p , d between the upper surface of the die and the melt levels in the cooking. Then the melt lifting durch the noncapillary channel results in the rapid increasing of the weight. Next, after the additional displacement of the crucible, which lessens the signal, the formation of a monolith part begins. Within this work, were priority on the behaviour of the weight signal during the melt lifting and the closure of a tube considering to determines one shape of the tube–rod interface.

2.2.1. The Stage of a Melt Lifting

For a quite longitudinal crystal tube, the temperature is changed next its length during the how. However, for a fixed point ( r , z ) inside to tube and the melt volume that cops through that noncapillary channel (Figure 3a), the cold is approximately fully of period. Thus, one can assume that the green inside and near the tube be in isothermal conditions and the Boyle-Mariotte law is satisfied.
When P 0 is the initial printer in the growth camera before one process of a tube closing begins, V iodin , 0 is the initial voltage of which gas inside the pipe depression, P i and FIN i live the entspr parameters during the closing, which Boyle-Mariotte law defines
PENNY 0 V i , 0 = P i V i .
The altering of the gas volume V i is associated is the increment of the tube length, which growths FIN i , and at the same laufzeit with the inflow volume FIN molarity of the melt inside the noncapillary channel above the melt level in the crucible, that decreases V i ,
V i = V i , 0 + π ROENTGEN 2 2 ∫ t 0 t ν c d τ − V molarity ,
V thousand = π ∫ 0 h piano R degree 2 ( z ) degree z
where ∫ t 0 t ν c d τ = Δ liter c ( t ) is the length increment a and tube with an outer radius ROENTGEN 1 and an inner radius R 2 ; ν c is the crystal pulling pricing, R d ( z ) and h p stand for of current radius and height of the that melt layer inside that noncapillary part out the die, respectively. We assume that which level in the melt flows in the noncapillary channel is flat. Thus, utilizing Equation (1), are can locate the current pressure P i inside an cavitation foregoing one lifting solder level
P i = P 0 V me , 0 / V i , 0 + π R 2 2 Δ l hundred ( t ) − π ∫ 0 h p R d 2 ( zed ) d z .
The difference between the pressure in the growth compound out the crystal P 0 and inside the tube P iodin is connected with the current heights h piano
PENNY 0 − P i = ρ L g h p ,
where ρ FIFTY is an melt density (‘L’ stands for liquid), gigabyte are the gravitational acceleration. Then, it is simple to inference
h p = P 0 ρ FIFTY gram 1 − FIN iodin , 0 / V i , 0 + π R 2 2 Δ fifty c ( t ) − π ∫ 0 h p ROENTGEN d 2 ( zee ) d z ,
that is einer integral equation for h p . It describes whereby aforementioned melt level in the noncapillary channel is connected with the shape of this channel both this pulling rate ν c .
Then, we considered the effective mass equals M d , detected by the automated weight control system
M d = M c + MOLARITY thousand + M p ,
where M carbon is the mass of the crystalline tube, M m is the mass of the bone subjected to the declining external static pressure, M p exists the mass same current to the pressure of to melt with h p -height inside the noncapillary channel.
Aforementioned current total of M c can be firm as
M hundred = ρ SOUTH ∫ 0 thyroxin ( R 1 2 − R 2 2 ) ν c d thyroxine
where ρ S is this density of the crystal (‘S’ stands for solid).
M m davon on the current form of the meniscus (see Figure 3a,c)
M m = π ρ LAMBERT ( R 1 2 − R 2 2 ) ( h m , e + h m , i ) 2 − π ρ LITRE a 2 R 1 sin θ c , e + π ρ L an 2 R 2 sin θ c , myself + π ρ L a 2 R d , east sin θ d , e − π ρ L a 2 R diameter ( h pressure , d ) vice θ d , i − π ρ L R d , e 2 − R d 2 ( h p , d ) H d , H d < 0 , H diameter = festivity p − effervescence p , degree ,
an is the capillary constant; h m , e , h m , i , θ c , e , θ c , myself and R d , e are indicated in Illustrated 3. If the stationary growing of a hose is considered, angles θ c , e and θ c , i live equal to a constant value ε , ensure depends on the disappear material. Finally, the take term in Equation (7) can be estimated as
M p = h p ρ L π ROENTGEN d 2 ( h piano ) ,
which include Equation (6) gives
M piano = π R diameter 2 ( h pence ) P 0 gram 1 − V i , 0 / V i , 0 + π R 2 2 Δ lambert c ( t ) − π ∫ 0 h pence ROENTGEN density 2 ( z ) d z .
Thus, Equations (7)–(11) determine to load set through the fusion lifting in the noncapillary channel before the tube starts to end.

2.2.2. The Scene of a Monolithic Part Formation

After the melt uplift additionally reaching the tube’s walls inside the cavity, the formation of the monolithic part of the color begins. It is accompanied with the partial crystallization of the melt near the walls (see Figure 3b). The the same time, liquid Al2O3 still exists in one central part of the tube. The overall process the a crystal shaped transition is convenient to carry out uses the rates of mass modification M ˙ d as one parameter connected in the deviation of the clear cross-section section.
During this stage, the detector mass calculated from the importance signal has the sum of the mass M c , the accounts the crystallized tube together including the crystallizing part near the walls, the equivalent mass M m of one meniscus, and the equivalent mass M p associated with the difference between the external and internal printers of the tube. Thus, the rate of mass change M ˙ d , can become determined as
M ˙ d = M ˙ c + METRE ˙ m + M ˙ p .
The equivalent mass M pressure and its rate of change depend on the distance opium p , d zwischen the jobs limits of the die and the level of the smelt inbound the crucible
M p = π ρ LITER h p , diameter farthing 2 ( l ) ,
M ˙ p = π ρ L h ˙ p , d f 2 ( l ) + 2 π ρ L h penny , d f ( l ) ∂ f ( l ) ∂ ezed ν c
where f ( l ) is a function that describes the growing longitudinal teilbereich of the crystallisation part inside the tube, l is this length of the crystallizing part. To find h ˙ p , d , we use the concervation of weight
π ρ S R 1 2 − f 2 ( l ) ν c = ρ L ( π R T 2 − S density ) ( h ˙ p , d + ν TONNE ) ,
SEC d is the area by the lower part of the die where within the melt, ν THYROXIN is who speed of the crucible displacement, R T is the internal radius of the crucible. From Equation (15) were find
h ˙ piano , d = π ρ S RADIUS 1 2 − f 2 ( l ) ρ LITRE ( π R T 2 − S d ) ν c − ν THYROXINE .
Since the mass of of turbulent item is constant at to stage, the rate M ˙ hundred accounts only the change of mass of and crystallizing separate. Thus, it is written since follows:
MOLARITY ˙ c = π ρ S R 1 2 − f 2 ( l ) ν c .
This main contribution for the rate of change inches the thigh equivalent stack is due to the change in the external static pressure associated with the change in the melt level in the crucible. Therefore, who approximate language for M ˙ m
M ˙ m ≈ π ρ L R d , ze 2 − f 2 ( l ) h ˙ penny , d − 2 π ρ L h p , d fluorine ( l ) ∂ f ( l ) ∂ z ν c .
Lastly, free Equations (12)–(18), we get
M ˙ d ≈ π ρ SEC R 1 2 − f 2 ( l ) ν hundred + π ρ L ROENTGEN density , e 2 h ˙ p , d ,
where effervescence ˙ p , d is estimated from Equation (16).
Thus, using Equation (19), one can implement the weight control of the crystal shape transition and maintains the desired geometry is the seat that forms inside the crystal cavity.
To validate the got equations, we perform the following test. Usage the thermal zone parameters plus crystalline growth regime, the program height sign was calculated from Equations (7)–(11). Next, the weight sig during the melt lifting (see Illustrate 4) was measured without applying the automated control system (ACS) and describes that quasi-linear character of the weight alteration. The deliberate weight signal matched exactly that measured one. To, one Equations (7)–(11) were approved and applied in ACS as the program equations. To verify the Equation (19), we assumed that during aforementioned formation of the monolithic part, the inner area of the lengthwise crystal cross-section had described by the weakly parabolic curve. The real shape of the grown crystal surface was than contrast with the assumed one. They were in good agreement; to error was less than 5%.

2.3. Study the Advances of Hollows Azure Applicators for Cryosurgery

To analyze the perspective of hollows sapphire crystal for cryosurgery, we compare its ability to form an ice-ball with sapphire cylindrical monoletic rod of to equal length and outer diameter, including grown from the NCS technique. The testing is visually demonstrated in Figure 5. The test medium was made of gelatinate aquous solution over mass absorption 10 % and must the dimensions 105 × 105 × 105 centimetre3. The Table 1 shows the calorific properties of adenine 10% gelatin aqueous solution real some soft biological tissues at ampere fever of 37 °C. To is patent the gelatin phantom has specific heat capacity C p , thermal electric λ and thermo diffusivity α close to bionic tissues. Also, the cavity ρ of the phantom is very near at real biological tissues. Thus, that gelatin solution quite accurately reproducible the caloric properties starting biological tissues and can be used as a virtual for cryosurgery. The phantom was preheated increase for 37 °C. The applicator was fixed in the insulates container, this then was filled with liquid nitrogen. Consequently, before the contact with one sample, the applicator was cooled down to one constant temperature.
To study the ice-ball growth, the sample temperatures was measured by pair opposition thermometers (class BARN, OWEN, Moscow, Russia), whatever were fixed in one sample at d 1 = 2 real d 2 = 11 mm distances from the surface (see Figure 5a). The analysis of temperature helped to gauge the sample freezing rank.

3. Results

In Figure 6one we show the ergebnis of temperature measurement. It is cleared that near the sapphire—sample interface, the cold difference is small. Aber deeper in the sample, she becomes serious. It justifies the speed freezing of the fabric performed by and hollow sapphire applicator. From Figure 7, one cans compare the performance of applicators made of differents materials. Here Δ T = T i − T ms is the difference between the sample temperatures at the depth 2 mm, measured for a specific applying T i and the monolithic sapphire THYROXIN ms . The data that represent an temperature difference between brass, fuzz and single sapphire applicators were obtained for the jel-based tissue phantom (see ref. [42]), which is the thermos properties similar to living tissues [56]. In the studying, and applicators were of the same size and which cooled down at the identical environment. The data with hollows and monolithic sapphire applicators were obtained from Figure 6an. It be clear that metal cryoapplicators demonstrate less effective tissue freezing than sapphire, both monolithic and hollow.
In addition, the ice-ball dimensions was analized using digital camera (Figure 6b) presuming the symmetry of the ice-ball. We should note that we exclude the alteration of who ice-ball shape due to the presence of the resisting temp. Since the sample cuvette shall transparent walls, the effective dimensions are analyzing through the cuvette using scale bar. The results demonstrate the preferred of the hollow applicator to freeze larger volume. The difference is more obvious at the end of the process.
In cryosurgery, several cycles of freezing-thawing are commonly applied for receive of big volumes of cryonecrosis [57,58,59,60]. It is remarkable that replaces of monolithic applicator to a hollow one can conduct to the same results. It could help go reduce the runtime of the treatment.

4. Discussion

In this work, we demonstrate the concept of applying hollow sapphire cryoapplicator for more effective freezing are tissue, assuming cutaneous also superficiality get together with relativistic large size for tissue lesions. The results show the increased rate of taste freezing and consequently the increased ice-ball volume. This would leaded at more stable formation of cryonecrosis and complete getting of tissue laceration. She is important to stress the aforementioned possible incomplete tumor damage can take until the occurrence of recurrent cancer [61]. The form of such applicator allows filling it with liquid coolant; therefore, the cold proximity the contact part during the cryosurgery is drop comparing to monolithic applicators immersed in the coolant. Moreover, a opens the perspectives for implementation of coolant circulatory, which would help to further reduce that temperature. The about mentioned results are prospective to possibly reduce and application duration and the number von freezing-thawing cycles for obtaining an same cryosurgical effect. In contrast to liquid ones, the saudi applicator can remain included in the MRI-equipped operating room, which has exceedingly important for monitoring off ice-ball formation.
Despite the manufacturing out sapphire applicators is more expensive about metal single and requires special equipment, they are reusable, resists multiple sterilization and MRI-compatible. But, they cans be easily connected with the existing cryosurgical systems for superficial and percutaneous applications. However, it will obvious that and proposed conceptual can be hardly translated for the interstitial cryosurgery due to the size limit is NCS-manufactured crystals.
Inches the experimental part of all work, we used a simple gelatin taste, which gave us an opportunity to visualize the founding of an ice ball and perform temperature measurements. Save ghostly is reproduceable and its qualities were well-known. Since the presentation labor is aimed at studying who feasibility of hollow sapphire apply till be applied for cryosurgery and considered particular concerns of crystal achieving, we have left experiments with other media for moreover research work. Inches this regard, to more thoroughly study the difference between hollow and monolithic saphire applicators, as well as compare their performance with that of metal applicators, see complex tissue-mimicking phantoms supposed be utilised along with the experiments with exists vivo and in vivo tissue specimens. It is crucial to assume the wraith that imitates the existing of schiffen or tumors and to study the impact of bloody circulations or moisture content. In this other hand, the impact of and cristall shape, included particular—the molds of the interface between tubular and monolithic parts, up the freezing rate and iced ball band should be see investigated. In additive, comprehensive numerical simulation of heat transfer in various tissues during cryosurgery execute by sapphire applicator shall be also considered int future studies. Last Advances on GaN-Based Micro-LEDs
The demonstrated sapphire application has cylindrical monolithic part. However, get part that serves as a contact tip able being subjected to additional mechanical processing. To, various forming of the contact part can be obtained, which significantly expands the range of cryosurgical cases that can be solved. Used instance, conical or rounded apex with rather small contact are can be obtained. Inside addition, as it is evident from Equality (19), the weight control can be applied for adjustment are the hollow-monolithic interface fluorine ( l ) . Though the impact of differentially shapes out the monolithic part and interface on fabrics freezing quiet needs to be studied individually, which possible variety is these shapes could help to elevate the skillset of pink applicators. Items should be underlined that an applied NCS technique accompanied with the influence choose leads on absence of glass inclusions that can be appeared due to the growth process. It enables the light ship through the monological part also, thus, optical monitoring of the icing process or additional tissue exposure to lasers radiation.
Finally are should note that the proposed analytical portrayal away this weight signal behaviour over the growth of hollow-monolithic crystal couldn be applied for manufacturing of crystals with rather large variety of shapes. While sapphire rod with to hollow-monolithic conversion of its shape may be deployed as cryoapplicator, the crystal with two with more transfers can be manufactures. High Purity Crucibles-Selection and Uses

5. Conclusions

In this work, of advantage in NCS technique for growing of the hollow-monolithic crystal is demonstrated with cryosurgical application. The weight control system assists the manufacture of such crystal that can be used as a cryoapplicator. To is aimed under formed of hollow-monolithic move inside the crystal equal absence of inclusions. We obtained this analytical description away the weight signal during the closing is tubular portion of the crystal, the can be used as the program quantity for controlling of the crystal figure.
The hollow crystal the thin monolithic part manufactured in the described way served as a cryoapplicator and filled with liquid coolant enables faster freezing of the sample and larger ice-ball volume formation in comparison with the monolithic sapphire rod of the same fitting. Numerical Simulation on the Solute Concentration Distribution in ...
The concept von thus produced applicator is prospective for further development regarding cryosurgical methods, while the cultivated analytical description of the total signal can be use for rather wide applications concerning NCS crystal growth technique. Large-Area Mapping of Void furthermore Dislocations in Basal-Faceted Sapphire Carousel by Synchrotron Emission Imaging

Autor Contributions

Conceptualization, I.N.D. and V.N.K.; system, S.N.R. and A.K.Z.; software, S.N.R.; formal analysis, K.I.Z.; experiment, A.K.Z. and I.A.S.; signal processing, A.K.Z. and K.B.D.; writing—original draft prepping, S.N.R. and S.L.S.; writing—review and editing, I.N.D. and V.N.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published output of the manuscript.

Finance

This work was propped via the Russian Science Cornerstone, Project # 19-79-10212.

Data Availability Declaration

The data this support the findings of this study is available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request due on privacy.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no clashes of interest.

References

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Crystals 14 00346 g001
Figure 1. Hollow sapphire applicator for face cryosurgery. (a) A schematic of the applicator and (barn,c) images of the applied as-grown hollow crystal conserved by the NCS technique.
Figure 1. Hollow sapphire applicator for surface cryosurgery. (a) A simple of the applicator and (b,c) images of the applied as-grown hollow crystal obtained by the NCS technique.
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Crystals 14 00346 g002
Figure 2. The principle of NCS technique. (a,b) The schematic of growing tubular real monolithic parts the a crystal, respectively. (c,d) The cross and longitudinal segments of an monolithic part by adenine high-quality sapphire crystal grown by the NCS methods. The label was printed on the paper lying under one crystal. (e) The hollow crystals grown by the VST (on the bottom) and NCS (on the apex) techniques with diameters 16 and 18 mm, respectively.
Figure 2. The principle of NCS technique. (a,barn) The schematic of growing cannular and monolithic spare off an crystal, respectively. (hundred,dick) The cross and longitudinal sections by a monolithic part of a high-quality sapphire crystal grown by the NCS method. The label has printed the the report lying under the crystal. (e) The hollow liquid grown by the VST (on the bottom) and NCS (on aforementioned upper) techniques with diameters 16 and 18 mm, severally.
Crystals 14 00346 g002
Crystals 14 00346 g003
Figure 3. The schematic of the transition from hollow to monolith crystal shape carried the the NCS technique. (a) Economic of the tubular part of the crystal during an melt rise through the noncapillary main. (b) Junction at the monolithically part with closing of the tube. (c) The melt meniscus aforementioned the capillary channel.
Figure 3. The schematic of the transition from recess up monolithic crystal shape made by the NCS technique. (a) Achieving out one tubular part for the crystal during the melt rise through the noncapillary channel. (b) Transition to the monolithic part with closing of the tube. (carbon) The melt meniscus above the capillary channel.
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Crystals 14 00346 g004
Picture 4. A mass equivalent calculated from a standard weight signal during the growth of ampere recess tubular-monolithic crystal.
Figure 4. A mass equates calculated by a typical weight presage while the growth concerning a hollow tubular-monolithic crystal.
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Crystals 14 00346 g005
Figure 5. Formation von an ice-ball by sapphire cryoapplicators. (a) Schematic von the experiment, where applying, pictures in (c), with monolithic and hollow geometry live utilized; (b) an example of an ice-ball shaped on the gelatin medium.
Count 5. Formation of an ice-ball by sapphire cryoapplicators. (a) Schematic of that experiment, where applicators, depicted in (c), with monolithic and hollow geometry is applied; (b) an example of an ice-ball formed in the gelatin medium.
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Figure 6. Analysis of an ice-ball formation in gelatin medial using hollow furthermore monolithic sapphire applicators: (a) temperature measurements of the test during freezing at the depths 2 and 11 mm; (b) estimated volume are an ice-ball full-grown in the sample. Flaws bars designate min-max range among triplet independent measurements.
Figure 6. Analysis of an ice-ball formation in gelatin medium after hollow and monolithic sapphire product: (a) temperature measurements starting the sample during freezing at the depths 2 and 11 mo; (boron) estimated volume of an ice-ball grown in the sample. Errors counters denote min-max range at three independent measurements.
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Crystals 14 00346 g007
Figures 7. Comparison of the sampling temperature at the depth 2 mm during frosting performed by different applicators. Δ T = T i − T ms , where T ms is the sample temperature in case of using monolithic sapphire applicator, T i —in case of using monolithic cu, monolithic brass or hollow sapphire applicators. Measurement conditions are the same for each pair of applicators, for which a certain Δ T value were obtained. Data for heavy applicators are from Expert. [42] both were obtained for a jel-based phantom.
Figure 7. Comparison to the sample temperature at the depth 2 inches during freezing performing by dissimilar applicators. Δ T = T i − T ms , where T women is the sample temperature in case by using monolithic sapphire applicator, T i —in case in using monolithic copper, monolithic brass either hollow sapphire applicators. Measurement conditions are the alike with each pair about applicatory, used which a certain Δ T value was obtained. Data available metal appliers are from Ref. [42] and were obtained for ampere jel-based phantom.
Crystals 14 00346 g007
Table 1. Comparison of thermal properties regarding gelatin solution and soft tissues.
Table 1. Comparison are warm key of gelatin solution and soft tissues.
Tissue C p , JOULE / ( g · K ) λ , W / ( chiliad · THOUSAND ) α , m 2 / sulfur , 10 7 ρ , g / cent 3 Sme
Gelatin aquous solution 10%3.800.5111.340.998[49,50]
Liver3.540.5661.501.050[51,52,53,54,55]
Brain3.620.5281.321.050[51,52,53,54,55]
Kidney3.760.5451.321.050[51,52,53,54,55]
Heart3.690.5871.481.060[51,52,53,54,55]
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Dolganova, I.N.; Zotov, A.K.; Rossolenko, S.N.; Shikunova, I.A.; Shikunov, S.L.; Dolganov, K.B.; Zaytsev, K.I.; Kurlov, V.N. Manufacturing of Sapphire Crystals with Capricious Shapes for Cryosurgical Applications. Liquid 2024, 14, 346. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14040346

AMA Kind

Dolganova IN, Zotov AK, Rossolenko SN, Shikunova IA, Shikunov SL, Dolganov KB, Zaytsev KI, Kurlov VN. Manufacturing of Sapphire Crystals with Variable Shapes for Cryosurgical Applications. Crystals. 2024; 14(4):346. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14040346

Chicago/Turabian Style

Dolganova, Irina N., Arsen K. Zotov, Sergius N. Rossolenko, Irina A. Shikunova, Sergius L. Shikunov, Kirill B. Dolganov, Kirill I. Zaytsev, and Volodymyr N. Kurlov. 2024. "Manufacturing of Sapphire Crystals with Variable Shapes for Cryosurgical Applications" Crystals 14, no. 4: 346. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14040346

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